According to this article, a small amount of Neanderthal DNA was introduced into the modern human gene pool. How do biologists even know what the Neanderthals' DNA look like?
The article doesn't mention how the science recognize what the Neanderthals' DNA actually is at the first place. So how do we know what the Neanderthals' DNA is if I'm guessing we never tested Neanderthals body cell samples?
If you say "From their bones/skull" but how do you know they are actually Neanderthals and not modern humans with some rare gene mutation or something else?
Answer
Neandertal DNA has been completely sequenced multiple times now, using DNA from bone and tooth samples found in cool or cold environments. The first Neanderthal genome sequence was described in 2010:
A Draft Sequence of the Neandertal Genome
Since then, as well as higher-quality sequence, more genomes have been completed; at least 6 individuals have been sequenced (perhaps more; I've lost track a little). As well, complete genome sequences from several Denisovans -- a Homo species that were approximately contemporary with Neandertals, but a distinct species -- have been recovered.
The science of recovering ancient DNA has advanced very rapidly in the last decade, and while it isn't routine to sequence 50,000-year-old DNA it isn't as magical as it used to be. The current record for sequencing ancient DNA is 700,000 years, which is earlier than the sapiens/neandertalis split.
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